In a security governance framework, the policy is typically at the highest level because it defines the overall direction and principles that govern the security posture of an organization. Policies are high-level statements that provide guidance to all members of an organization and form the foundation upon which standards, procedures, and guidelines are built. They are approved by the highest levels of management and are meant to be more stable over time, providing a consistent framework for security across the organization.

Changing default system passwords is a fundamental step in securing a new web server. Default passwords are often well-known and can be easily found in public documentation or through internet searches, making systems with unchanged default passwords highly vulnerable to unauthorized access. By changing these passwords, an administrator immediately reduces the risk of simple, automated attacks that exploit default credentials.

While the other options listed are also important security measures, they are not typically the first action taken. Encrypting the hard disk (B) is a good practice for protecting data at rest, but it does not protect against unauthorized access via default passwords. Hardening applications and patching the OS (D) are critical for reducing the attack surface and protecting against known vulnerabilities, but they are generally performed after ensuring that the system is not accessible with default passwords.

The effectiveness of a security awareness program can be measured through various methods that assess both the knowledge and behavior of employees regarding security practices.

Online multiple choice exam on security principles: This method evaluates the employees' understanding of the security principles they have been taught. It's a direct measure of their knowledge and retention.

Testing with social engineering techniques by an approved penetration tester: This practical approach tests employees' reactions to real-life security threats, such as phishing or pretexting, which can indicate the effectiveness of the training in changing behavior.

Open source intelligence gathering on staff social media profiles: This method can reveal whether employees are adhering to security policies by not disclosing sensitive information publicly.

Option 3 is not a direct measure of a security awareness program's effectiveness, as practicing ethical hacking techniques is more about skills development rather than assessing awareness. Option 4, while important, does not directly measure the effectiveness of the security awareness program but rather the overall security posture of the organization.

Ensuring the correctness of data inputted to a system is a fundamental aspect of data integrity within information security. Integrity refers to the trustworthiness and accuracy of data throughout its lifecycle. This means that the data has not been altered in an unauthorized manner and remains consistent, accurate, and trustworthy. It is crucial for the proper functioning of any system that relies on data to make decisions or perform operations. Measures to ensure data integrity include input validation, error checking, and data verification processes that prevent incorrect data entry, unauthorized data alteration, and ensure that the data reflects its intended state.

Digital signatures are a form of electronic signature that uses cryptographic techniques to provide secure and verifiable means of signing electronic documents. They are widely recognized and accepted as legally binding in many jurisdictions around the world. The enforceability of digital signatures is backed by various laws and regulations that recognize electronic signatures as equivalent to handwritten signatures, provided they meet certain criteria for authenticity and integrity.For instance, in the United States, the ESIGN Act establishes the legal validity of electronic signatures, including digital signatures1.Similarly, the eIDAS regulation in the European Union provides a legal framework for electronic signatures and trust services, including digital signatures2.